TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2019, volume 18 issue 2

Figure 1: Tendencies in digital citizenship
3.1 Digital citizenship as a bridge to empowerment
Conceptualizations of digital citizenship are nascent, given that it is not yet understood in depth, prompting
different researchers (Arif, 2016; Ortega-Gabriel, 2015; Sancho, Hernández and Rivera, 2016) to indicate the
need to continue investigating, expanding and generating academic debates on the topic. Thus, a wide range of
perspectives exists regarding what digital citizenship encompasses.
In general, studies (Sanabria & Cepeda, 2016; Gorman, 2015) illustrate that digital citizenship refers to “the
values of respect, tolerance, liberty, security…” (Sanabria & Cepeda, 2016, p. 98) and emphasizes the
democratic principles (ethics, legality, security and responsibility) that guide actions in digital spaces (Sanabria
& Cepeda, 2016, p. 98).
Other authors (Searson, Hancock, Soheil & Shepherd, 2015) propose that digital citizenship is a comprehensive
concept with the following three components: constant questioning of the policies of all nations, active interest
in the affairs of other countries and an interest in creating a just global order. Couldry, Stephansen, Fotopoulou,
MacDonald, Clark & Dickens, (2014) propose a similar perspective on digital citizenship, though offer a
stronger heuristic vision focused on exploring the uses of technologies through (interpersonal) relationships and
the social practices generated by different social groups.
Authors such as Hintz, Dencik & Wahl-Jorgensen, 2017 mention that “Digital citizenship is typically defined as
the (self-) enactment of people's role in society through the use of digital technologies” [p731]. Other authors
have adopted a citizen participation perspective on the use of open data, concluding that said participation is
crucial and facilitates practical activities, greater responsibility, and improved communication and relationships
between citizens and open data portals; however, data extrapolated to global contexts is nevertheless lacking
(Hivon & Titah, 2017).
Some researchers have discussed the issue of the constant monitoring of the activities of digital citizens by state
agencies and internet companies, causing an intermittent change in the balance of power [(Hintz, Dencik &
Wahl-Jorgensen, 2017; Hintz, & Brown, 2017; Martínez Rodríguez, 2011).
Additionally, some studies (Simsek & Simsek, 2013) allude to the skills necessary to participate in digital
citizenship. Some authors mention contemporary literacy skills (Simsek & Simsek, 2013; Area & Ribeiro, 2012)
or technical and social skills (Waikato Diocesan School for Girls, 2015, cited in Gorman, 2015), while others
(Sanabria & Cepeda, 2016) refer to dimensions of digital citizenship (creative, communicative and participative,
axiological).
Clearly, digital citizenship is considered an essential aspect and one that should take priority in student training
at educational institutions. This perspective is reflected in studies that have found deficiencies in student training
with regard to civic knowledge (Robles, 2011) and studies that present teacher perceptions of the integration of
digital citizenship into the thematic content of classes (Karaduman, 2017).
Research on digital citizenship highlights many topics, such as the use of Web 2.0, online participation,
democracy, citizenship rights, technological capacities, the internet, social networks, values, norms, being
informed, critical attitudes and the digital divide (Arif, 2016; Ortega-Gabriel, 2015; Simsek & Simsek, 2013;
Area & Ribeiro, 2012).
Articles also highlight that countries such as Australia and New Zealand are working to promote the rights and
responsibilities associated with digital citizenship and recognize these as fundamental to government processes,
thus advocating for digital citizenship as a universal right (Sullivan, 2016; Simsek & Simsek, 2013; Gorman,
2015). This effort has been supported by experts in the field such as Area & Ribeiro,2012, who state that “the
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