TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – April 2019, volume 18 issue 2

Related to the above proposals is the development of digital skills to become informed and actively participate as
citizens in digital society García-Valcárcel, Basilotta and Mulas, (2016). In this respect, new concepts have been
proposed to describe new approaches to democracy, including teledemocracy (Beker and Aterton, 1981 and
1987, cited in Martínez, 2011), cyberdemocracy (Howard Rheingold, 2004, cited in Martínez, 2011) and digital
or electronic democracy, digital government and e-administration.
Other studies highlight the importance of developing competencies through new literacies that strengthen digital
citizenship, supported by public policies and individual responsibilities (Simsek & Simsek, 2013). Studies also
reveal that students with high levels of attitudes toward the internet and self-efficacy in the use of computers
exhibit high levels of respect for themselves and others and educate themselves and others about digital
citizenship (Al-Zahrani, 2015).
In contrast to the research summarized thus far, some studies find both advantages and disadvantages in the use
of the internet as a mechanism for citizen participation. On the one hand, for instance, a positive aspect is free
participation. From another perspective, this aspect can be become a form of oppression in certain countries with
undemocratic regimes. Thus, studies emphasize the importance of conducting more research to clarify the
relationship between the use of ICTs, citizen participation and democracy (Nam, 2017; Szopiński, & Staniewski,
2017).
Studies also find that although students have increased their digital literacy, this increase does not guarantee that
students will use technology to empower themselves, become more autonomous in their learning or develop
critical thinking skills. The studies reveal gaps in the instruments used to investigate the use of technology and
propose conducting interviews and classroom observation to learn how teachers and students choose certain
technological tools for teaching, learning and participation (Hohlfeld, Ritzhaupt, Dawson, & Wilson, 2017).
4. DISCUSSION
This literature review aimed to identify the research fields that have explored digital citizenship and to highlight
the different perspectives on digital citizenship. The review demonstrates that the concept of digital citizenship
has permeated society and, therefore, the relationships that arise with it, thus providing new perspectives on what
it means to be a digital citizen (Sullivan, 2016; Simsek & Simsek, 2013; Gorman, 2015). Digital competencies
have provided spaces for society in general to express itself in response to different social, political and academic
phenomena (Vesnic-alujevic, 2013; Soukup, 2014). Additional research is required, however, on the relationship
of technologies to the phenomena present in society.
Various researchers have advocated the practical application of the concept of digital citizenship (Blevins,
LeCompte & Wells, 2014; Pellegrino, Zenkov & Calamito, 2013; García-Valcárcel, Basilotta and Mulas, 2016),
for instance, by prioritizing citizen participation in digital realms. Notably, such proposals have elevated the
perceived importance of training as well as further studying this topic.
In developing countries, access to technological resources is not guaranteed, thus affecting individuals’ access to
information and online participation. Moreover, certain governments do not often make public the information
managed by government agencies.
Hence, the conditions for training and acquisition of skills concerning digital citizenship are likely more
favorable in developed countries that already possess the support and open databases from governments. This
contrast is a clear example of how the state can transform itself, thus opening the door to societal participation in
government processes (Sancho, Hernández and Rivera, 2016). Nevertheless, the relationship between
government, citizen participation (democracy) and ICTs has not been addressed in adequate depth, which
suggests the necessity of pursuing comparative research on developed and developing countries.
In this respect, one of the most widely recognized proposals worldwide is that of the International Society for
Technology in Education (ISTE, 2004), which posits that digital citizenship comprises nine areas (netiquette,
communication, education, access, commerce, responsibility, rights, ergonomics, and risk). This composition, in
contrast to the programs and proposals reviewed, demonstrates that only certain areas of digital citizenship has
been addressed in the literature, such as access, rights and communication. This selective investigation of digital
citizenship reaffirms the need for further research on digital citizenship and raises the question of the adequacy
of training provided in current programs and whether such training has been addressed all areas or dimensions of
digital citizenship.
5. Conclusion
In synthesis, promoting digital citizenship implies great challenges, which can include participation by
government bodies, universities, schools, families and society in general, transforming them into agents capable
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