FOOD STIMULI AND GENDER

11

2005). Even young children have shown concern about weight control affecting their food
choices (Westenhoefer, 2002). However, studies indicate that gender differences in food
choices and intake appear for the first time in adolescence (Rolls et al., 1991). A Czech study
on adolescents showed a gender difference in food preferences. Boys had less healthy food
preferences than girls. Nevertheless, comparing preferences with actual consumption,
preferences were reflected only in part (Fiala, Bienertová-Vasšku, Brazdová, Švancara, &
Kukla, 2015).
Dietary restraint is defined as “intentional efforts to achieve or maintain a desired
weight through reduced caloric intake” (Stice, Ozer, & Kees, 1997). A correlation has been
found between dietary restraint and lower body mass index (BMI), suggesting that dietary
restraint could contribute to successful weight management (Rideout & Barr, 2009). Dietary
restraint has also been negatively correlated with energy and fat intake (De Castro, 1995;
Lindroos et al., 1997). Dietary restraint is not necessarily equivalent to dieting. However,
more research is needed to clarify this distinction (Rideout & Barr, 2009). Women have
presented higher scores in dietary restraint than men (Provencher, Drapeau, Tremblay,
Després, & Lemieux, 2003).
Other factors that could explain gender differences in consumption and eating
behaviors are health beliefs and attitudes (Emanuel, McCully, Gallagher, & Updegraff,
2012) and nutritional knowledge (Baker & Wardle, 2003).

2.1.3 Stimuli and Behavioral Response
The previous section mentioned external factors that affect hunger. A stimulusresponse model is proposed that includes different steps before a behavioral response takes
place. The first step in the stimulus-response model is an external stimulus such as a visual